Powers and logarithms¶

Nth roots¶

`sqrt()`¶

mpmath.sqrt(x, **kwargs)¶

sqrt(x) gives the principal square root of $x$ , $\sqrt x$ . For positive real numbers, the principal root is simply the positive square root. For arbitrary complex numbers, the principal square root is defined to satisfy $\sqrt x = \exp(\log(x)/2)$ . The function thus has a branch cut along the negative half real axis.

For all mpmath numbers x, calling sqrt(x) is equivalent to performing x**0.5.

Examples

Basic examples and limits:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = True
>>> sqrt(10)
3.16227766016838
>>> sqrt(100)
10.0
>>> sqrt(-4)
(0.0 + 2.0j)
>>> sqrt(1+1j)
(1.09868411346781 + 0.455089860562227j)
>>> sqrt(inf)
+inf

Square root evaluation is fast at huge precision:

>>> mp.dps = 50000
>>> a = sqrt(3)
>>> str(a)[-10:]
'9329332814'

mpmath.iv.sqrt() supports interval arguments:

>>> iv.dps = 15; iv.pretty = True
>>> iv.sqrt([16,100])
[4.0, 10.0]
>>> iv.sqrt(2)
[1.4142135623730949234, 1.4142135623730951455]
>>> iv.sqrt(2) ** 2
[1.9999999999999995559, 2.0000000000000004441]

`hypot()`¶

mpmath.hypot(x, y)¶: Computes the Euclidean norm of the vector $(x, y)$ , equal to $\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}$ . Both $x$ and $y$ must be real.

`cbrt()`¶

mpmath.cbrt(x, **kwargs)¶

cbrt(x) computes the cube root of $x$ , $x^{1/3}$ . This function is faster and more accurate than raising to a floating-point fraction:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = False
>>> 125**(mpf(1)/3)
mpf('4.9999999999999991')
>>> cbrt(125)
mpf('5.0')

Every nonzero complex number has three cube roots. This function returns the cube root defined by $\exp(\log(x)/3)$ where the principal branch of the natural logarithm is used. Note that this does not give a real cube root for negative real numbers:

>>> mp.pretty = True
>>> cbrt(-1)
(0.5 + 0.866025403784439j)

`root()`¶

mpmath.root(z, n, k=0)¶

root(z, n, k=0) computes an $n$ -th root of $z$ , i.e. returns a number $r$ that (up to possible approximation error) satisfies $r^n = z$ . (nthroot is available as an alias for root.)

Every complex number $z \ne 0$ has $n$ distinct $n$ -th roots, which are equidistant points on a circle with radius $|z|^{1/n}$ , centered around the origin. A specific root may be selected using the optional index $k$ . The roots are indexed counterclockwise, starting with $k = 0$ for the root closest to the positive real half-axis.

The $k = 0$ root is the so-called principal $n$ -th root, often denoted by $\sqrt[n]{z}$ or $z^{1/n}$ , and also given by $\exp(\log(z) / n)$ . If $z$ is a positive real number, the principal root is just the unique positive $n$ -th root of $z$ . Under some circumstances, non-principal real roots exist: for positive real $z$ , $n$ even, there is a negative root given by $k = n/2$ ; for negative real $z$ , $n$ odd, there is a negative root given by $k = (n-1)/2$ .

To obtain all roots with a simple expression, use [root(z,n,k) for k in range(n)].

An important special case, root(1, n, k) returns the $k$ -th $n$ -th root of unity, $\zeta_k = e^{2 \pi i k / n}$ . Alternatively, unitroots() provides a slightly more convenient way to obtain the roots of unity, including the option to compute only the primitive roots of unity.

Both $k$ and $n$ should be integers; $k$ outside of range(n) will be reduced modulo $n$ . If $n$ is negative, $x^{-1/n} = 1/x^{1/n}$ (or the equivalent reciprocal for a non-principal root with $k \ne 0$ ) is computed.

root() is implemented to use Newton’s method for small $n$ . At high precision, this makes $x^{1/n}$ not much more expensive than the regular exponentiation, $x^n$ . For very large $n$ , nthroot() falls back to use the exponential function.

Examples

nthroot()/root() is faster and more accurate than raising to a floating-point fraction:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = False
>>> 16807 ** (mpf(1)/5)
mpf('7.0000000000000009')
>>> root(16807, 5)
mpf('7.0')
>>> nthroot(16807, 5)    # Alias
mpf('7.0')

A high-precision root:

>>> mp.dps = 50; mp.pretty = True
>>> nthroot(10, 5)
1.584893192461113485202101373391507013269442133825
>>> nthroot(10, 5) ** 5
10.0

Computing principal and non-principal square and cube roots:

>>> mp.dps = 15
>>> root(10, 2)
3.16227766016838
>>> root(10, 2, 1)
-3.16227766016838
>>> root(-10, 3)
(1.07721734501594 + 1.86579517236206j)
>>> root(-10, 3, 1)
-2.15443469003188
>>> root(-10, 3, 2)
(1.07721734501594 - 1.86579517236206j)

All the 7th roots of a complex number:

>>> for r in [root(3+4j, 7, k) for k in range(7)]:
...     print("%s %s" % (r, r**7))
...
(1.24747270589553 + 0.166227124177353j) (3.0 + 4.0j)
(0.647824911301003 + 1.07895435170559j) (3.0 + 4.0j)
(-0.439648254723098 + 1.17920694574172j) (3.0 + 4.0j)
(-1.19605731775069 + 0.391492658196305j) (3.0 + 4.0j)
(-1.05181082538903 - 0.691023585965793j) (3.0 + 4.0j)
(-0.115529328478668 - 1.25318497558335j) (3.0 + 4.0j)
(0.907748109144957 - 0.871672518271819j) (3.0 + 4.0j)

Cube roots of unity:

>>> for k in range(3): print(root(1, 3, k))
...
1.0
(-0.5 + 0.866025403784439j)
(-0.5 - 0.866025403784439j)

Some exact high order roots:

>>> root(75**210, 105)
5625.0
>>> root(1, 128, 96)
(0.0 - 1.0j)
>>> root(4**128, 128, 96)
(0.0 - 4.0j)

`unitroots()`¶

mpmath.unitroots(n, primitive=False)¶

unitroots(n) returns $\zeta_0, \zeta_1, \ldots, \zeta_{n-1}$ , all the distinct $n$ -th roots of unity, as a list. If the option primitive=True is passed, only the primitive roots are returned.

Every $n$ -th root of unity satisfies $(\zeta_k)^n = 1$ . There are $n$ distinct roots for each $n$ ( $\zeta_k$ and $\zeta_j$ are the same when $k = j \pmod n$ ), which form a regular polygon with vertices on the unit circle. They are ordered counterclockwise with increasing $k$ , starting with $\zeta_0 = 1$ .

Examples

The roots of unity up to $n = 4$ :

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = True
>>> nprint(unitroots(1))
[1.0]
>>> nprint(unitroots(2))
[1.0, -1.0]
>>> nprint(unitroots(3))
[1.0, (-0.5 + 0.866025j), (-0.5 - 0.866025j)]
>>> nprint(unitroots(4))
[1.0, (0.0 + 1.0j), -1.0, (0.0 - 1.0j)]

Roots of unity form a geometric series that sums to 0:

>>> mp.dps = 50
>>> chop(fsum(unitroots(25)))
0.0

Primitive roots up to $n = 4$ :

>>> mp.dps = 15
>>> nprint(unitroots(1, primitive=True))
[1.0]
>>> nprint(unitroots(2, primitive=True))
[-1.0]
>>> nprint(unitroots(3, primitive=True))
[(-0.5 + 0.866025j), (-0.5 - 0.866025j)]
>>> nprint(unitroots(4, primitive=True))
[(0.0 + 1.0j), (0.0 - 1.0j)]

There are only four primitive 12th roots:

>>> nprint(unitroots(12, primitive=True))
[(0.866025 + 0.5j), (-0.866025 + 0.5j), (-0.866025 - 0.5j), (0.866025 - 0.5j)]

The $n$ -th roots of unity form a group, the cyclic group of order $n$ . Any primitive root $r$ is a generator for this group, meaning that $r^0, r^1, \ldots, r^{n-1}$ gives the whole set of unit roots (in some permuted order):

>>> for r in unitroots(6): print(r)
...
1.0
(0.5 + 0.866025403784439j)
(-0.5 + 0.866025403784439j)
-1.0
(-0.5 - 0.866025403784439j)
(0.5 - 0.866025403784439j)
>>> r = unitroots(6, primitive=True)[1]
>>> for k in range(6): print(chop(r**k))
...
1.0
(0.5 - 0.866025403784439j)
(-0.5 - 0.866025403784439j)
-1.0
(-0.5 + 0.866025403784438j)
(0.5 + 0.866025403784438j)

The number of primitive roots equals the Euler totient function $\phi(n)$ :

>>> [len(unitroots(n, primitive=True)) for n in range(1,20)]
[1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 2, 6, 4, 6, 4, 10, 4, 12, 6, 8, 8, 16, 6, 18]

Exponentiation¶

`exp()`¶

mpmath.exp(x, **kwargs)¶

Computes the exponential function,

$\exp(x) = e^x = \sum_{k=0}^{\infty} \frac{x^k}{k!}.$

For complex numbers, the exponential function also satisfies

$\exp(x+yi) = e^x (\cos y + i \sin y).$

Basic examples

Some values of the exponential function:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 25; mp.pretty = True
>>> exp(0)
1.0
>>> exp(1)
2.718281828459045235360287
>>> exp(-1)
0.3678794411714423215955238
>>> exp(inf)
+inf
>>> exp(-inf)
0.0

Arguments can be arbitrarily large:

>>> exp(10000)
8.806818225662921587261496e+4342
>>> exp(-10000)
1.135483865314736098540939e-4343

Evaluation is supported for interval arguments via mpmath.iv.exp():

>>> iv.dps = 25; iv.pretty = True
>>> iv.exp([-inf,0])
[0.0, 1.0]
>>> iv.exp([0,1])
[1.0, 2.71828182845904523536028749558]

The exponential function can be evaluated efficiently to arbitrary precision:

>>> mp.dps = 10000
>>> exp(pi)  
23.140692632779269005729...8984304016040616

Functional properties

Numerical verification of Euler’s identity for the complex exponential function:

>>> mp.dps = 15
>>> exp(j*pi)+1
(0.0 + 1.22464679914735e-16j)
>>> chop(exp(j*pi)+1)
0.0

This recovers the coefficients (reciprocal factorials) in the Maclaurin series expansion of exp:

>>> nprint(taylor(exp, 0, 5))
[1.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.166667, 0.0416667, 0.00833333]

The exponential function is its own derivative and antiderivative:

>>> exp(pi)
23.1406926327793
>>> diff(exp, pi)
23.1406926327793
>>> quad(exp, [-inf, pi])
23.1406926327793

The exponential function can be evaluated using various methods, including direct summation of the series, limits, and solving the defining differential equation:

>>> nsum(lambda k: pi**k/fac(k), [0,inf])
23.1406926327793
>>> limit(lambda k: (1+pi/k)**k, inf)
23.1406926327793
>>> odefun(lambda t, x: x, 0, 1)(pi)
23.1406926327793

`power()`¶

mpmath.power(x, y)¶

Converts $x$ and $y$ to mpmath numbers and evaluates $x^y = \exp(y \log(x))$ :

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 30; mp.pretty = True
>>> power(2, 0.5)
1.41421356237309504880168872421

This shows the leading few digits of a large Mersenne prime (performing the exact calculation 2**43112609-1 and displaying the result in Python would be very slow):

>>> power(2, 43112609)-1
3.16470269330255923143453723949e+12978188

`expj()`¶

mpmath.expj(x, **kwargs)¶

Convenience function for computing $e^{ix}$ :

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 25; mp.pretty = True
>>> expj(0)
(1.0 + 0.0j)
>>> expj(-1)
(0.5403023058681397174009366 - 0.8414709848078965066525023j)
>>> expj(j)
(0.3678794411714423215955238 + 0.0j)
>>> expj(1+j)
(0.1987661103464129406288032 + 0.3095598756531121984439128j)

`expjpi()`¶

mpmath.expjpi(x, **kwargs)¶

Convenience function for computing $e^{i \pi x}$ . Evaluation is accurate near zeros (see also cospi(), sinpi()):

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 25; mp.pretty = True
>>> expjpi(0)
(1.0 + 0.0j)
>>> expjpi(1)
(-1.0 + 0.0j)
>>> expjpi(0.5)
(0.0 + 1.0j)
>>> expjpi(-1)
(-1.0 + 0.0j)
>>> expjpi(j)
(0.04321391826377224977441774 + 0.0j)
>>> expjpi(1+j)
(-0.04321391826377224977441774 + 0.0j)

`expm1()`¶

mpmath.expm1(x)¶

Computes $e^x - 1$ , accurately for small $x$ .

Unlike the expression exp(x) - 1, expm1(x) does not suffer from potentially catastrophic cancellation:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = True
>>> exp(1e-10)-1; print(expm1(1e-10))
1.00000008274037e-10
1.00000000005e-10
>>> exp(1e-20)-1; print(expm1(1e-20))
0.0
1.0e-20
>>> 1/(exp(1e-20)-1)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ZeroDivisionError
>>> 1/expm1(1e-20)
1.0e+20

Evaluation works for extremely tiny values:

>>> expm1(0)
0.0
>>> expm1('1e-10000000')
1.0e-10000000

`powm1()`¶

mpmath.powm1(x, y)¶

Computes $x^y - 1$ , accurately when $x^y$ is very close to 1.

This avoids potentially catastrophic cancellation:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = True
>>> power(0.99999995, 1e-10) - 1
0.0
>>> powm1(0.99999995, 1e-10)
-5.00000012791934e-18

Powers exactly equal to 1, and only those powers, yield 0 exactly:

>>> powm1(-j, 4)
(0.0 + 0.0j)
>>> powm1(3, 0)
0.0
>>> powm1(fadd(-1, 1e-100, exact=True), 4)
-4.0e-100

Evaluation works for extremely tiny $y$ :

>>> powm1(2, '1e-100000')
6.93147180559945e-100001
>>> powm1(j, '1e-1000')
(-1.23370055013617e-2000 + 1.5707963267949e-1000j)

Logarithms¶

`log()`¶

mpmath.log(x, b=None)¶

Computes the base- $b$ logarithm of $x$ , $\log_b(x)$ . If $b$ is unspecified, log() computes the natural (base $e$ ) logarithm and is equivalent to ln(). In general, the base $b$ logarithm is defined in terms of the natural logarithm as $\log_b(x) = \ln(x)/\ln(b)$ .

By convention, we take $\log(0) = -\infty$ .

The natural logarithm is real if $x > 0$ and complex if $x < 0$ or if $x$ is complex. The principal branch of the complex logarithm is used, meaning that $\Im(\ln(x)) = -\pi < \arg(x) \le \pi$ .

Examples

Some basic values and limits:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = True
>>> log(1)
0.0
>>> log(2)
0.693147180559945
>>> log(1000,10)
3.0
>>> log(4, 16)
0.5
>>> log(j)
(0.0 + 1.5707963267949j)
>>> log(-1)
(0.0 + 3.14159265358979j)
>>> log(0)
-inf
>>> log(inf)
+inf

The natural logarithm is the antiderivative of $1/x$ :

>>> quad(lambda x: 1/x, [1, 5])
1.6094379124341
>>> log(5)
1.6094379124341
>>> diff(log, 10)
0.1

The Taylor series expansion of the natural logarithm around $x = 1$ has coefficients $(-1)^{n+1}/n$ :

>>> nprint(taylor(log, 1, 7))
[0.0, 1.0, -0.5, 0.333333, -0.25, 0.2, -0.166667, 0.142857]

log() supports arbitrary precision evaluation:

>>> mp.dps = 50
>>> log(pi)
1.1447298858494001741434273513530587116472948129153
>>> log(pi, pi**3)
0.33333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333
>>> mp.dps = 25
>>> log(3+4j)
(1.609437912434100374600759 + 0.9272952180016122324285125j)

`ln()`¶

mpmath.ln(x, **kwargs)¶

Computes the base- $b$ logarithm of $x$ , $\log_b(x)$ . If $b$ is unspecified, log() computes the natural (base $e$ ) logarithm and is equivalent to ln(). In general, the base $b$ logarithm is defined in terms of the natural logarithm as $\log_b(x) = \ln(x)/\ln(b)$ .

By convention, we take $\log(0) = -\infty$ .

The natural logarithm is real if $x > 0$ and complex if $x < 0$ or if $x$ is complex. The principal branch of the complex logarithm is used, meaning that $\Im(\ln(x)) = -\pi < \arg(x) \le \pi$ .

Examples

Some basic values and limits:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = True
>>> log(1)
0.0
>>> log(2)
0.693147180559945
>>> log(1000,10)
3.0
>>> log(4, 16)
0.5
>>> log(j)
(0.0 + 1.5707963267949j)
>>> log(-1)
(0.0 + 3.14159265358979j)
>>> log(0)
-inf
>>> log(inf)
+inf

The natural logarithm is the antiderivative of $1/x$ :

>>> quad(lambda x: 1/x, [1, 5])
1.6094379124341
>>> log(5)
1.6094379124341
>>> diff(log, 10)
0.1

The Taylor series expansion of the natural logarithm around $x = 1$ has coefficients $(-1)^{n+1}/n$ :

>>> nprint(taylor(log, 1, 7))
[0.0, 1.0, -0.5, 0.333333, -0.25, 0.2, -0.166667, 0.142857]

log() supports arbitrary precision evaluation:

>>> mp.dps = 50
>>> log(pi)
1.1447298858494001741434273513530587116472948129153
>>> log(pi, pi**3)
0.33333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333333
>>> mp.dps = 25
>>> log(3+4j)
(1.609437912434100374600759 + 0.9272952180016122324285125j)

`log10()`¶

mpmath.log10(x)¶: Computes the base-10 logarithm of $x$ , $\log_{10}(x)$ . log10(x) is equivalent to log(x, 10).

Lambert W function¶

`lambertw()`¶

mpmath.lambertw(z, k=0)¶

The Lambert W function $W(z)$ is defined as the inverse function of $w \exp(w)$ . In other words, the value of $W(z)$ is such that $z = W(z) \exp(W(z))$ for any complex number $z$ .

The Lambert W function is a multivalued function with infinitely many branches $W_k(z)$ , indexed by $k \in \mathbb{Z}$ . Each branch gives a different solution $w$ of the equation $z = w \exp(w)$ . All branches are supported by lambertw():

lambertw(z) gives the principal solution (branch 0)
lambertw(z, k) gives the solution on branch $k$

The Lambert W function has two partially real branches: the principal branch ( $k = 0$ ) is real for real $z > -1/e$ , and the $k = -1$ branch is real for $-1/e < z < 0$ . All branches except $k = 0$ have a logarithmic singularity at $z = 0$ .

The definition, implementation and choice of branches is based on [Corless].

Plots

# Branches 0 and -1 of the Lambert W function
plot([lambertw, lambda x: lambertw(x,-1)], [-2,2], [-5,2], points=2000)

# Principal branch of the Lambert W function W(z)
cplot(lambertw, [-1,1], [-1,1], points=50000)

Basic examples

The Lambert W function is the inverse of $w \exp(w)$ :

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 25; mp.pretty = True
>>> w = lambertw(1)
>>> w
0.5671432904097838729999687
>>> w*exp(w)
1.0

Any branch gives a valid inverse:

>>> w = lambertw(1, k=3)
>>> w
(-2.853581755409037807206819 + 17.11353553941214591260783j)
>>> w = lambertw(1, k=25)
>>> w
(-5.047020464221569709378686 + 155.4763860949415867162066j)
>>> chop(w*exp(w))
1.0

Applications to equation-solving

The Lambert W function may be used to solve various kinds of equations, such as finding the value of the infinite power tower $z^{z^{z^{\ldots}}}$ :

>>> def tower(z, n):
...     if n == 0:
...         return z
...     return z ** tower(z, n-1)
...
>>> tower(mpf(0.5), 100)
0.6411857445049859844862005
>>> -lambertw(-log(0.5))/log(0.5)
0.6411857445049859844862005

Properties

The Lambert W function grows roughly like the natural logarithm for large arguments:

>>> lambertw(1000); log(1000)
5.249602852401596227126056
6.907755278982137052053974
>>> lambertw(10**100); log(10**100)
224.8431064451185015393731
230.2585092994045684017991

The principal branch of the Lambert W function has a rational Taylor series expansion around $z = 0$ :

>>> nprint(taylor(lambertw, 0, 6), 10)
[0.0, 1.0, -1.0, 1.5, -2.666666667, 5.208333333, -10.8]

Some special values and limits are:

>>> lambertw(0)
0.0
>>> lambertw(1)
0.5671432904097838729999687
>>> lambertw(e)
1.0
>>> lambertw(inf)
+inf
>>> lambertw(0, k=-1)
-inf
>>> lambertw(0, k=3)
-inf
>>> lambertw(inf, k=2)
(+inf + 12.56637061435917295385057j)
>>> lambertw(inf, k=3)
(+inf + 18.84955592153875943077586j)
>>> lambertw(-inf, k=3)
(+inf + 21.9911485751285526692385j)

The $k = 0$ and $k = -1$ branches join at $z = -1/e$ where $W(z) = -1$ for both branches. Since $-1/e$ can only be represented approximately with binary floating-point numbers, evaluating the Lambert W function at this point only gives $-1$ approximately:

>>> lambertw(-1/e, 0)
-0.9999999999998371330228251
>>> lambertw(-1/e, -1)
-1.000000000000162866977175

If $-1/e$ happens to round in the negative direction, there might be a small imaginary part:

>>> mp.dps = 15
>>> lambertw(-1/e)
(-1.0 + 8.22007971483662e-9j)
>>> lambertw(-1/e+eps)
-0.999999966242188

References

[Corless]

Arithmetic-geometric mean¶

`agm()`¶

mpmath.agm(a, b=1)¶

agm(a, b) computes the arithmetic-geometric mean of $a$ and $b$ , defined as the limit of the following iteration:

$a_0 = a b_0 = b a_{n+1} = \frac{a_n+b_n}{2} b_{n+1} = \sqrt{a_n b_n}$

This function can be called with a single argument, computing $\mathrm{agm}(a,1) = \mathrm{agm}(1,a)$ .

Examples

It is a well-known theorem that the geometric mean of two distinct positive numbers is less than the arithmetic mean. It follows that the arithmetic-geometric mean lies between the two means:

>>> from mpmath import *
>>> mp.dps = 15; mp.pretty = True
>>> a = mpf(3)
>>> b = mpf(4)
>>> sqrt(a*b)
3.46410161513775
>>> agm(a,b)
3.48202767635957
>>> (a+b)/2
3.5

The arithmetic-geometric mean is scale-invariant:

>>> agm(10*e, 10*pi)
29.261085515723
>>> 10*agm(e, pi)
29.261085515723

As an order-of-magnitude estimate, $\mathrm{agm}(1,x) \approx x$ for large $x$ :

>>> agm(10**10)
643448704.760133
>>> agm(10**50)
1.34814309345871e+48

For tiny $x$ , $\mathrm{agm}(1,x) \approx -\pi/(2 \log(x/4))$ :

>>> agm('0.01')
0.262166887202249
>>> -pi/2/log('0.0025')
0.262172347753122

The arithmetic-geometric mean can also be computed for complex numbers:

>>> agm(3, 2+j)
(2.51055133276184 + 0.547394054060638j)

The AGM iteration converges very quickly (each step doubles the number of correct digits), so agm() supports efficient high-precision evaluation:

>>> mp.dps = 10000
>>> a = agm(1,2)
>>> str(a)[-10:]
'1679581912'

Mathematical relations

The arithmetic-geometric mean may be used to evaluate the following two parametric definite integrals:

$I_1 = \int_0^{\infty} \frac{1}{\sqrt{(x^2+a^2)(x^2+b^2)}} \,dx I_2 = \int_0^{\pi/2} \frac{1}{\sqrt{a^2 \cos^2(x) + b^2 \sin^2(x)}} \,dx$

We have:

>>> mp.dps = 15
>>> a = 3
>>> b = 4
>>> f1 = lambda x: ((x**2+a**2)*(x**2+b**2))**-0.5
>>> f2 = lambda x: ((a*cos(x))**2 + (b*sin(x))**2)**-0.5
>>> quad(f1, [0, inf])
0.451115405388492
>>> quad(f2, [0, pi/2])
0.451115405388492
>>> pi/(2*agm(a,b))
0.451115405388492

A formula for $\Gamma(1/4)$ :

>>> gamma(0.25)
3.62560990822191
>>> sqrt(2*sqrt(2*pi**3)/agm(1,sqrt(2)))
3.62560990822191

Possible issues

The branch cut chosen for complex $a$ and $b$ is somewhat arbitrary.

Powers and logarithms¶

Nth roots¶

`sqrt()`¶

`hypot()`¶

`cbrt()`¶

`root()`¶

`unitroots()`¶

Exponentiation¶

`exp()`¶

`power()`¶

`expj()`¶

`expjpi()`¶

`expm1()`¶

`powm1()`¶

Logarithms¶

`log()`¶

`ln()`¶

`log10()`¶

Lambert W function¶

`lambertw()`¶

Arithmetic-geometric mean¶

`agm()`¶

Table Of Contents

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Powers and logarithms¶

Nth roots¶

sqrt()¶

hypot()¶

cbrt()¶

root()¶

unitroots()¶

Exponentiation¶

exp()¶

power()¶

expj()¶

expjpi()¶

expm1()¶

powm1()¶

Logarithms¶

log()¶

ln()¶

log10()¶

Lambert W function¶

lambertw()¶

Arithmetic-geometric mean¶

agm()¶

Table Of Contents

Previous topic

Next topic

This Page

Quick search

Navigation

`sqrt()`¶

`hypot()`¶

`cbrt()`¶

`root()`¶

`unitroots()`¶

`exp()`¶

`power()`¶

`expj()`¶

`expjpi()`¶

`expm1()`¶

`powm1()`¶

`log()`¶

`ln()`¶

`log10()`¶

`lambertw()`¶

`agm()`¶